Soc+215,+Section+2

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 * __Wiki Page for Qualitative Methods, Sociology 215, Section 2__ **

1. Introduction 2. Class logistics 3. What makes a good research question? 4. Differences between qualitative and quantitative research 5. Examples of qualitative and quantitative research 6. Post-modern theory 7. Positivism 8. Independent and dependent variables 9. Examples of article abstracts with key information identified 10. Ethnography

**INTRODUCTION:** Qualitative Methods is not a "math" class where numbers and equations will be used, rather we will learn to use our observations in relation to a social theory, not like Quantitative Methods, which is Soc 214. During the course of this semester we will keep a class wiki page. The goal of this wiki page is to summarize the readings as well as class discussions and lectures. Professor Felson stated that he would like to "make the hard things easy for us, and have us make the easy things easier for him." By creating this wiki page we as a class are given a great and simple way to review all of the information we have learned.


 * CLASS LOGISTICS: **

__**FINAL GRADE WILL BE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING:**__ Wiki entries- 30% Exams- 25% All assignments progressing towards a research paper- 45%

A Wiki contribution is being able to help edit the Wiki site to make it more understandable for other students in the class. Wiki is a site that we will use in Soc 215 to summarize reading materials, class lectures and discussions.

Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that is primarily ran by about 20 individuals. It can be edited or changed by anyone. It is usually a website that librarians and professors do not want students to use in research papers or projects because of the lack of manpower to identify false statements edited by individuals! Brittanica is run by experts and scholars consisting of 1,000's of workers and costs lots of money to obtain it. In our higher education institution that we attend known as William Paterson University our instructor for SOC. 215. J. Felson stated that “he will like to make harder things easy for us, and make the easy things easier for him.” Wikipedia is an accurate source to find information because it is written and edited usually by experts in the subject. In this class we will learn the right way to ask questions to the person we are researching.

For our research paper we have to choose a role that we already have taken on or wish we could take on. We then have to search google for at least 10 blogs that will be used for our paper. For our paper it will have nine sections Abstract, Introduction, Literature review, Hypothesis, Data and Methods, Results, Conclusion, References, and Appendix When doing a research project it is important to do a research on a topic that it is of interest to you. Also, when doing a research project, you can't go into it by already trying to summarize how your results will be. You can begin with an opinion about a certain topic, but your research findings may change that. Wikipedia is a free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. We will be completing the majority of our assignments in Google Docs, which is a word processor online. Throughout the semester, Professor Felson said, "We will not be writing a 20 page paper, but we will be writing a 10 page paper twice!" Professor Felson also gave the class a heads up that the research paper will be broken down into parts through out the semester and that we will be responsible for choosing a topic with a role we are taken or a role that we plan on introducing our selves too, and with our time in class and home time we must find 10 blogs that are related to our topic that we will use for our assignment. Our final research paper will include previous assignments that we will rewrite.


 * WHAT MAKES A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION? **

What make a good research question ? A good research question is something that a person should find interesting in reading or learning about. A good research question ? is a question that you should be able to find a lot of information and data on that will support your question.

When working on a study, one very important thing to remember is the research question. They shouldn't be too detailed or too impressive, and must be a question that would be most interesting for others to know or be curious about. When approaching and creating a research question, two points are critical: 1) That the question is answerable. 2) That the question is interesting to people other then yourself. Aside from finding a question that is answerable, you want a question that is interesting to you as well as to others. Research involves entering into a conversation. The issue is how your research will contribute to that conversation. In social research you have to be ready for a surprise in your research findings. Uncertainty is what makes the research exciting and rewarding. Sometimes the surprise can be a small effect, but others it can be the opposite of your targeted finding. You must also have someone revise your research question. If it is uninteresting to them it is because of two reasons. The no–surprise objection which is no one will learn anything because the research is already well documented and the "so what" objection which means the question has no relevance for social science or everyday life.

Pages one to seven in chapter one discusses the factor of surprise in social research and that everyone should be ready to be surprised by their findings. Any results that comes out from a finding means something, even if it has no effect, or a big effect. From reading chapter one, " There should be the possibility of surprise in social research," it talked about how to select a research topic and questions that should be answering "unsearchable and interesting". The statement from this chapter that stayed in my head was "YOU must be ready to be surprised by your research findings, If you always knew the answer beforehand what is the point of doing the research." The reason it stayed with me is because I always pick a research project that I am familiar with so I don't have to do the boring research and I know what the out come but still bored me doing it but this chapter explained how you find a research project you are interested in and it wont be boring it will be surprising.

Before you can answer the "Why" question, you have to be able to answer the "What" question when researching. You must find a question that has a possibility of being answered by facts and not just opinions. Some questions can not always be answered due to ethical reasons.

Social research differs from advocacy research. Advocacy research only presents findings that supports the cause, whereas, social research presents all findings. The first rule is that "there should be the possibility of surprise in social research". Although you may anticipate what you are going to find, you should be able to keep an open mind in order to recognize contrary evidence when it appears.

To decide upon a great research paper and individual should decide upon an interesting topic. Some of these concepts include topics such as race and gender inequality. To make the topics more interesting you must come up with both a cause and effect. To build upon this the researcher must ask the question. The question must be both interesting to the reader and the researcher. The topic has to allow others to think about it and form their own opinions.

Researchers do not have to come up with an original question (one not thought of by others), but conduct further research on an existing study. One of the most fascinating thing about a study is that it could be questioned and the results may vary. Also, studies may lack research and as a researcher you can conduct your own experiment to further a study's theory. Research papers allows students to continue to think outside the box.


 * DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE: **

Qualitative Methods involves methods of collecting information with non-numerical statistics, as opposed to quantitative methods that does use numbers in the research. Qualitative methods are methods that do not involve dimensions or data such as observation and interviewing. Rather Qualitative method focuses on small subject matter and is composed of lots of detail about the case.

The blogs found for the position we have selected must be written by an individual who is directly involved that role and not just writing about that role. We must choose ten blogs that are related to the role that we have chosen.

Qualitative research methods is concerned with the "hows" and "whys" of human behavior. It seeks to find an understanding through observation of this behavior. It is a way of finding out how human behavior is governed and why individuals act in particular ways.

Qualitative research usually takes place before the quantitative part of a research project. The researcher is the only instrument used in gathering research. There is no surveys or questionnaires as there are in quantitative research.

A qualitative interview is defined as "a data collection method in which an interviewer adapts and modifies the the interview for each interviewee." (Adler,Clark) This is opposed to the quantitative method which entails the use of a standardized interview. Many times interview questions are "open-ended" questions.

A qualitative data analysis is defined as a " analysis that results in the interpretation of action or representation of meanings in the researcher's own words." (Adler,Clark) whereas quantitative data analysis is based on statistical information gathered.

Qualitative research is used in study environments everyday and can be helpful in determining people's values, attitudes, concerns, motivations, and beliefs.

Quantitative research will never be on individual subjects. Qualitative will focus mainly on the form of the variables: race, income, gender

Quantitative research consists of many subject cases however, there is not a lot of detail composed for the cases.

Quantitative research methods focuses on nomothetic explanation rather than idiographic explanation. Nomothetic explanation focuses om variables causing variables.

Idiographic versus nomothetic approaches:
Idiographic is used as a method of studying the individual, single case events, and or person. Idiographic looks at both the history and biography of individual phenomena as well as it's functioning, and traits. This method was developed by a philosopher names Wilhelm Windelband and is mostly used in qualitative research methods. An example of Idiographic is a study that looks at why some people get married and some do not.

Idiographic approach may focus on groups of people, neighborhoods or organizations and tell their stories as a whole. Idiographic approach views variables in the background not in the foreground. Nomothetic research used in Quantitative Research views variables, such as independent and dependent variables in the foreground. This approach interconnects the variables, as in the path diagram. Nomothetic research basically talks about explaining a lot with very little. It also has a more general outlook on things. In nomothetic research you also talk about variables over talking about people.


 * EXAMPLES OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE: **

An example of qualitative research for the role of a College student is the "Understanding college students' and parents' perceptions of cell phone communication in family relationships: A grounded theory approach”. This study examines college student' and parents' perceptions of cell phone communication in family relationships. This sample included 20 families and online chat rooms were used for students and email interviews for the parents.
 * College Student: **

An example of quantitative research for the role of a College student is the "Heavy Drinking and Polydrug Use among College Students". This study show new ways of categorizing alcohol and how it is used in relation to drugs. A survey was administered by 484 students ages 18 to 25.

The qualitative article that represents elementary teaching is titled "Pathways to affective accountability: Selecting, locating, and using children’s books in elementary school  classrooms". The study talks about how children’s books helps with the student’s literacy skills, also by having an effective teacher it will improve the child’s vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency.
 * Elementary Teaching:**

However there is an article that can also be explain through the quantitative thought which is entitled "University of Missouri-Colombia Launches Effort to Recruit Male Teachers" it deals with the president of the University of Missouri-Colombia starting a program with financial incentives to get more males involved teaching. The purpose of this program is that there is an assumption that there are lacks of male influences in the schools. The program will help mentor and be a great influence to the younger grades.


 * Police Officer:**

For this role, a Qualitative study titled: The necessity of dishonesty: //police// deviance, 'making the case', and the public good were performed with 10 urban police officers. It studied their attitudes towards dishonest motivations and extra-legal means to help their law enforcement performance. The study was addressing the issues of police dishonesty and corruption. Another qualitative article that was found for a Police officer was called “Police Who Snitch: Deviant Actors in a Secret Society.” This study examined the role of snitches and the effects they have on police organizations. It also looked to discover reasons why someone would look to snitch in a profession that usually keeps things within. “The Philosophical Versus Actual Adoption of Community Policing: A Case Study” by Allison T. Chappell is also a qualitative article. This article discussed how in  Florida they used a medium size police agency to explore the limit patrol officers have endorsed and implemented community policing. The research was conducted in order to gain insight on what rules and regulations prevent officers from performing community policing. Another example of qualitative research for a police officer can be found in the article titled "Risky Behavior: Cell Phone Use While Driving." They used a small city and tried to see if the percent of cell phone use was higher as the distance of the police station got further.

However, this role also has a quantitative approach about it as well. The study is entitled, Law Enforcement Response to the Mentally Ill: An Evaluative Review studies law enforcement response to the mentally ill. The study investigates the shortcomings in existing research on the topic. It suggests the need for more training and community support. Also the article deemed  “Police Use of Excessive Force: Does the Race of the Suspect Influence Citizens' Perceptions” studies the aspects of quantitative research. The study was a survey of 1992 Ohio residents and asked them to assign levels of seriousness to use of police force particularly when it came to race of a suspect. It was found though that people thought the actions of a suspect were more important then the race. “Ethnicity, trust, and acceptance of authority among police officers” by Joseph De Angelis and Aaron Kupchik is also a quantitative article. This article focuses on the extent to which police officer’s ethnicity interacts and complies with the decisions made by the police command staff. The purpose was simply to get the opinions of the officers anonymously. Another primary example for police officers in the area for quantitative research can be found in the, Child Welfare Worker Caseload: What's Just Right study. They wanted to establish a caseload standard for child welfare workers. They got a group session involving 60 children, youth and family (CYF). They analyzed more then 16,000 cases. They found out that some CYF workers work twice the amount per month then they should be. ** School Counselor: **

The journal __The School Counselor as Leader__ by Jennifer Curry and Joyce DeVoss would be an example of a qualitative research. The journal explains the role of the counselor as a leader in the school, and how much the counselor is accountable for children's actions. Because we are getting an inside look of the role of a school counselor, and it is pretty much known that counselors are a form of leaders in the school system, which makes this qualitative.

However I have found an article based on the same topic, and yet this article is an example of a quantitative research. T he journal is called the __Leader Member Exchange Theory to Examine Principal-School Counselor Relationships.__ This journal examines the relationship between a Principal and School Counselor and uses theories to figure out whether the principal has an impact on counselors within their school system. Because this answer is not an obvious one, it is considered quantitative.

One qualitative study for a Social Worker is the article "Discourse analysis of a childcare drama: Or the interfaces between paradoxical discourses of time in the context of **// social //** work". This article is qualitative because the research that is being done is somewhat known and it is a study that required time and to observe childcare and the time a social worker has to help individual clients, in which interviews are needed. Another article for a quantitative study is "Perceptions of the Causes of Poverty in  Finland". The study is looking at poverty in Finland as into what are the reason people get into poverty and as it is neglected in reading about poverty. This study use cross-sectional survey does in 2005 to see if there was a consensus in the population as the study explores the reasoning behind this question.
 * Role: Social Worker **

The article “Between the Professional and the Private: The Meaning of Working with Intimate Partner Violence in **// Social //** Workers' Private Lives” is qualitative because it examines the impact of working with intimate partner violence on therapists' marital relationships and gender identity. There was a smaller sample size of 14 women and the researcher was able to get to know in depth aspect of the women’s lives. The article “Hospice **// social //** workers: The incidence of compassion fatigue” is quantitative research because it utilized the Professional Quality of Life Scale meaning the researcher would end up with statistical data. The statistical data may hint at a difference in quantity rather than quality making in quantitative. ** Soldier: ** In the "Sex differences in aggression: Origins and implications for sexual integration of combat forces," article one can see a qualitative theory at work. This study is finding out how gender differences in aggressive and risk-taking behaviors have practical implications for sexual integration of military combat units. The social-role theory implies that female soldiers will adapt to their role and display the same aggressive and risk-taking propensities as their male comrades.

"The Draft Lottery and Attitudes Towards the Vietnam War" article, one can see the quantitative approach in determining the feeling towards the draft. This research note reconsiders this result using a panel survey of university students collected before and after the first  Vietnam draft lottery. These data are unique because they allow the unbiased estimation of the effect of self-interest on attitudes toward the war.

**Stay at home mother:**

An example of a qualitative look in the life of a stay at home mother can be found in the study called "Understanding the Transition from Career to Motherhood: A Qualitative Study." This study involved four women who shared their personal experiences in transitioning from being a career woman to being a stay at home mother.

An example of the quantitative research can be found in the study called "College Women's Plans for Different Types of Egalitarian Marriages." This study included 144 participants who completed surveys regarding their preferences of different life scenarios and their attitudes regarding work and family life.


 * Teachers:**

Fernandes, Marcos Henrique; Rocha, Vera Maria; Brasilino de Souza, Djanira Historia, Ciencias, Saude Manguinhos, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 283-291, May-Aug 2005. This article uses cause and effect and explains how health issues are viewed by elementary teachers. This Quantitative Research has two variables: health of students and education/teaching methods. ** The ** // School // ** as They See It: Validation of a Measure of Secondary Students' Perceptions of Their ** // School // ** Environment: ** Galand, Benoit; Philippot, Pierre Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 138-154, Apr 2005. ** Yet this article also uses Qualitative Methods to explain students perceptions of their school environment. The concept of a student’s perception is one that is mysterious and may be different to every person. This method needs the study of ethnography to get into the heads of the students in order to figure out the answers.

Post-Modern Theory
 We’re going to a quick look at post-modernist perspective on research. Postmodernism is hard to extremely hard to define. It is a concept that appears in a wide variety of disciplines. These disciplines include art, music, literature, sociology, and communications. The post-modernists simply go against many researchers. They say research should have the possibility of surprise. Research is something that should not be predetermined. Post-modernists do not believe in this. Post-modernist are extremely bias when it comes to research. What we find is that researchers normally find what they already hypothesis. What they believe the result will be the outcome would usually be just that.

Qualitative studies contain data collecting with non-numerical data. This method does not involve measurements, statistics, surveys, or questionnaires this particular study focuses on the “HOWS” and “WHYS” of the human behaviors through observations of their behaviors. Which is a way to find out how human behaviors are governed and why individual people act in a particular way. The Definition of a Qualitative interview states “a //data// collection method in which an interviewer adapts and modifies the interview for each interviewee." (Adler,Clark) and there Data Analysis is defined as " //analysis that results in the interpretation of action or representation of meanings in the researcher's own words."// (Adler,Clark) Quantitative Studies is a study typically a study which follows after the Qualitative study which there data analysis is based on statistical information gathered. Quantitative Study uses surveys and questionnaires to gather there research information. This study also entails the use of a standardized interview.

Positivist perspective on research.
The positivist perspective on research is used to explain and predict, to be able to apply a general understanding to all research.

The positivist perspective, first articulated by August Comte, is the idea of using social facts to conduct research on society. Comte believed that we could study society objectively just like scientists study animals and diseases. Once social facts are obtained, it is believed that we can use this information to manipulate society in a positive way.


 * Reliability**

When a Sociologists or researcher is gathering statistics for a study or while do a study, it is important that there is a consistency in the data or reliability. The results of the data have to give the same results if the study is done multiple times. Even if the results are the same, they might not be validity. For reliability there has to be a 100% overlap. The idea about reliability is when you make an observation you want to make sure everything is consistent and the reading are the same every time. Reliability is making sure that the source is authentic and genuine. Reliability is to ensure that there is no false information and that the information is supported by facts of the content.


 * Validity**

After the researcher determines the reliability of the data, it is then their job to determine the validity of the data. While the reliability of the data is a measure of how consistent the data or observation is, validity is a measure of how accurate or correct the data is. Its the state that exists when conclusions about empirical reality are correct.

**Independent and Dependent Variables**

Another way to look at independent and dependent variables is a cause and effect relationship, in which the independent variable is the cause and the effect is the dependent variable. This is known as a causal relationship and occurs because the independent variable causes the effect of the dependent variable. It is important to know though that both variables should be characteristics of people and not the people themselves.
 * Dependent** : A dependent variable is the variable that the researcher is trying to explain.
 * Independent** : An independent variable is the variable that the researcher is using to explain the dependent variable.

Below are some examples of article abstracts, with independent and dependent variables identified.

Examples of article abstracts, with independent and dependent variables identified.

**Key Types of Questions**

** Why ** there are dependent and independent variables is a very important question. Figuring out why they connect is the most important question one can ask, why the variables connect will help you to understand the whole situation and give a better sociological understanding of the whole experience. Without knowing why these variables depend on each other will confuse you and mislead your mind to thinking false thoughts about the situation.
 * Whether** or not an independent variable causes a dependent variable.
 * When ** these variables will connect and become the situation at hand is crucial, because this will define the event or situation. Without knowing when they will connect will leave a vague understanding of the situation. There must be a point where the variables connect and form an understanding.

Independent Variables in the abstract is the knowledge and risk of getting Aids. The Dependent Variable is sexual Behavior, sexual Orientation define as the gender of sex partner. The question in the abstract is, Does the knowledge of the risk of AIDS CHANGE SOMEONE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR. THIS is also quantitative method because it a whether and how they may connect
 * Independent and Dependent Variables.**

Abstract 8-**__The Sexual Double Standard and Adolescent Peer Acceptance__** __Article abstract__ :The belief that women and men are held to different standards of sexual conduct is pervasive in contemporary American society. According to the sexual double standard, boys and men are rewarded and praised for heterosexual sexual contacts, whereas girls and women are derogated and stigmatized for similar behaviors. Although widely held by the general public, research findings on the sexual double standard remain equivocal, with qualitative studies and early attitudinal surveys generally finding evidence of the double standard and more recent experimental vignette designs often failing to find similar results. In this study, we extend prior research by directly measuring the social status of sexually permissive youth. We use data collected from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to relate adolescents’ self-reported numbers of sexual partners to a network measure of peer acceptance. Results suggest that the association between lifetime sexual partnerships and peer status varies significantly by gender, such that greater numbers of sexual partners are positively correlated with boys’ peer acceptance, but negatively correlated with girls’ peer acceptance. Moreover, the relationship between boys’ sexual behaviors and peer acceptance is moderated by socioeconomic origins; sexually permissive boys from disadvantaged backgrounds are predicted to have more friendships than permissive boys from more advantaged backgrounds. Our results thus support the existence of an adolescent sexual double standard and suggest that sexual norms vary by both gender and socioeconomic origins. The dependent variable would be peer acceptance.Number of sex partners is the independent variable The research question would be: Does the sexual double standard that exists among boys/men/ and girls/women affect the amount of social relationships or friendships that adolescents are involved in? This article establishes a relationship between number of sexual partners and social acceptances among peers. The article would as what roles does the sexual double standard play in the overall acceptance of the adolescents into social peer groups

// Opponents of lesbian and gay parental rights claim that children with lisbigay parents are at higher risk for a variety of negative outcomes. Yet most research in psychology concludes that there are no differences in developmental outcomes between children raised by lesbigay parents and those raised by heterosexual parents. The analysis here challenges this defensive conceptual framework and analyzes how heterosexism has hampered intellectual progress in the field. The authors discuss limitations in the definitions, samples, and analysis of the studies to date. Next they explore findings from 21 studies and demonstrate that researchers frequently downplay findings indicating difference regarding children’s gender and sexual preferences and behavior that could stimulate important theoretical questions. A less defensive, more sociologically informed analytic framework is proposed for investigating these issues. The framework focuses on (1) whether selection effects produced by homophobia account for associations between parental sexual orientations and child outcomes; (2) the role of parental gender vis-a’-vis sexual orientation in influencing children’s gender development; and (3) the relationship between parental sexual orientations and children’s sexual preferences and behaviors. // In abstract #4 the independent variable is the sexual orientation of parents and the dependent variable is the sexual orientation and preferences of children. The central research question that the author is trying to answer is: Does the sexual orientation of parents affect the sexual orientation and preferences of their children? This is a whether question because we are trying to find out whether or not it affects their children.
 * Abstract 4 **
 * __(How) Does the Sexual Orientation of Parents Matter?__ **

=Abstract #6 = =Before and After: Gender Transitions, Human Capital, and Workplace Experiences =  We use the workplace experiences of transgender people – individuals who change their gender typically with hormone therapy and surgery – to provide new insights into the long-standing question of what role gender plays in shaping workplace outcomes. Using an original survey of male-to-female and female-to-male transgender people, we document the earnings and employment experiences of transgender people before and after their gender transitions. We find that while transgender people have the same human capital after their transitions, their workplace experiences often change radically. We estimate that average earnings for female-to-male transgender workers increase slightly following their gender transitions, while average earnings for male-to-female transgender workers fall by nearly 1/3. This finding is consistent with qualitative evidence that for many male-to-female workers, becoming a woman often brings a loss of authority, harassment, and termination, but that for many female-to-male workers, becoming a man often brings an increase in respect and authority. These findings challenge the omitted variables explanations for the gender pay gap and illustrate the often hidden and subtle processes that produce gender inequality in workplace outcomes. Independent variable- Gender and the workplace. Dependent variable- The pay gap between men and women in the workplace. Research question- Why are men able to make more money in the workplace?

Abstract #7 Abstract- In the mid- 1990s, changes to law enforcement strategies in NYC pushed many women working in the sex trade off of the streets and into the indoors. Increasing numbers of women began advertising sexual services in bars, over the internet, and in print media, and conducting their work in their homes, hotels, and brothels. This study uses in-depth interviews and participant observation to examine the impact of this change on the life and work of women working in New York's indoor sex trade. A critical finding is that as women move their work indoors, they begin to conceive of sex work as a profession and a career, rather than just a short-term means of employment. This "professional and careerist orientation" may have significant implications for the length of women's tenure in sex work and ultimately, for their ability to exit the trade completely.
 * __Vice Careers: The Changing Contours of Sex Work in New York City__**

This article is quantitative because it is a whether type of question and answer
 * Independent variable** - change in law enforcement strategy
 * Dependent variable** - changes in how sex workers see their job

Abstract # 5 __**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">Oral Sex Among Adolescents:Is It Sex or Is It Abstinence? **__ //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">The reports in the popular press that oral sex has become widespread among adolescents cannot be confirmed or refuted because the data to do so have never been collected. Moreover, adults do not really know what behaviors teenagers consider to be "sex" and, by the same token, what they consider to be its opposite, abstinence. All of this leaves health professionals and policymakers without the means to effectively address these issues. // //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">The tendency to equate "sex" with intercourse alone represents long-standing cultural norms of acceptable sexual behavior and certainly applies to adults as well as to adolescents. It also reflects a deeply rooted ambivalence about talking about sex. Recent press reports, however, are forcing a reappraisal of the implications of this exclusive focus on coitus for research and data collection efforts, for STD prevention and treatment, and for the framing and interpretation of abstinence and risk-reduction messages. // //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">This special report draws on interviews and correspondence with roughly two dozen adolescent and health professionals, including researchers, psychologists, abstinence program coordinators and evaluators, sexuality educators and epidemiologists, to explore some of these consequences. The report concentrates on oral sex, as opposed to other noncoital behaviors, because it is currently the subject of public debate in the media and in many schools. It reviews the limited information on adolescents' experience with oral sex, and looks at the even smaller body of evidence on what young people consider to be sex or abstinence. // __**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">Independent variable: **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;"> Time when adolescents begin sexual activity/oral sex, STD & AIDS __**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">Dependent variable: **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;"> Kind of sexual activity vs. oral sex This article is a whether because it uses a quantitative approach for the report. __**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">Research Question **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; letter-spacing: 0px;">: The authors states it in the title. Oral sex among adolescents: is it sex or is it abstinence?

Abstract #9 __THE CABDRIVER AND HIS FARE: FACETS OF A FLEETING RELATIONSHIP__ Abstract- The relationship between the big-city cabdriver and his fare is random. Fleeting, unrenewable, and devoid of socially integrative features conducive to constraint. A regulative imbalance can be said to exit which, among its other consequences, is expressed in the preoccupation with the vagaries of tipping. So extreme a relationship suggests the extent to which practitioner-client controls in other fields of service depending for their effectiveness on the maintenance of a safe modicum of continuity, stability, and homogeneity of clientele.

Abstract 3: Comparisons of well being across societies depend on both on the amount of inequality at the national level and also on the national level of well being. Comparisons between the U.S. and western europe show that inequality is greater in the U.S. but that the average GDP per capita is also greater in the U.S. and most Americans have higher standards of living than do western Europeans at a comparable locations in their national income distributions. What is less well known is that (depending on the country) much of or even the entire gap arises from the differences in the level of working hours in the U.S. and in Western Europe. Cross national comparisons of well-being have typically relied on the methodology of generalized Lorenz curves (GLC), but this approach privileges disposable income and cash transfers while ignoring other aspects of welfare state and labor market structure that potentially affect the distribution of well being in a society. We take an alternative approach that focuses on the value of time and the different distributions of work and family time that are generated by each country's labor market and social welfare institutions. In the empirical exercise involving the U.S. and the Netherlands, we show that the reasonable estimates of the contribution to well being from non-market activities such as the raising of children or longer vacations can overturn claims in the literature that the U.S. offers greater well being to more of its citizens than do eastern European Countries. The independent variable is kinds of server/client relationships including that between a cabdriver and his or her customer." The dependent variable here is "hard and fast rules about tipping, etc. versus no hard and fast rules about tipping."
 * Independent variable** is Big City Cabdriver
 * Dependent variable** **is Fare of random,** Fleeting, unrenewable, and devoid of socially integrative features conducive to constraint

In an apartment building on Chicago's Southside, fifty of the seventy-five residents are sex workers. Our study used in depth interviews and participant observation of Chicago's sex work economy to argue that sex work is constituent part of an overall low-wage, off-the-books economy of resource exchange among individuals in a bounded geographic setting. To an outsider, the decision to be a sex worker seems irrational; in this paper, we argue that specific localized conditions invert this decision and render it entirely rational. For the men and women in our study, sex work acts as a short tern solution that satisfies the demands of persistent poverty and instability and it provides a meaningful option in the quest for a job that provides autonomy and personal fulfillment.
 * abstract #2**

The **independent** variable is social class/poverty vs non poverty. The **dependent** variable is choice of sex work vs. another occupation. The **research question** s why do people in poverty choose prostitution as opposed to other occupations?

Ethnography Ethnography is a qualitative research method that is often employed for gathering empirical data on human societies/cultures. Data collection is often done through participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, and many other means of gathering data. Ethnographies aim to describe the nature of those who are studied through writing. An example would be found in the book, //Gang Leader for a Day//. The author is a sociologist who wants to write a paper about gangs. He figured that the best way to obtain information about them was to become a gang member and observe them by taking field notes.

When it comes to causal attribution many people use path diagrams to explain the connection between the causes and effects. These diagrams can also be considered as models because its just another way to simplify the causal and effect. These models are made up of variables. The variables can be anything that relates to the people or groups that the diagram is about. The variables are also expressed as independent (x) and dependent (y). The independent variable is known as the cause and the dependent variable is known as the effect. There are many thing that can bring about a causality but no one can ever be certain of it. This is called Fundamental Problem of Causal Inference because there can be times that X does not cause Y. Both variable can be connected in one way or another but this doesn't necessarily mean one cause the other. This is called correlation is not causation. Both X and Y are connected by connected by a third variable "Z". What i mean by this is that both X and Y are of a result of Z. Their are researchers who try to eliminate Z, so they can isolate X and Y. This is called controlling for Z. By doing this they can isolate X and Y. When you have X and Y by themselves there is a possibility that they can be reciprocal to each other. In order to be sure about X and Y, the cause would have to be put to the test. ** <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Gang Leader For A Day
 * Causality

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Foreword**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">

Stephen J Dubner wrote the forward to introduce us to a sociologist whose research may seem unconventional. Dubner interviewed and was first introduced to Sudhir Venkatesh by his co-author of Freakonomics, Steven Levitt, as well as included in the book Freakonomics. Dubner describes Venkatesh as a curious, fearless, and unorthodox sociologist, one that was held hostage by its subject and at the same time become a gang leader for a day. Venkatesh soft-spoken and a man of few words is a far contrast to the stories he tells. He is a sociologist that enters into his subject's world to better understand how they live. This book is a discovery about not the stereotypical views of poor families in the poor communities but the daily struggle to survive and the role each member plays.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 144%;">Preface In the Preface, Venkatesh wakes up in a crack den called "The Roof." "The Roof" is located in an abandoned apartment in the Robert Taylor Homes and was called "The Roof"because you could get higher there than you could if you climbed onto the actual roof of the building. When Venkatesh woke up, there were two dozen others still passed out on the floor around him. They had been there the night before drinking, partying, having sex, and smoking crack. Everyone that is, except for Venkatesh. He was a graduate student at the University of Chicago and was there on research. For his research, he had been hanging out with a gang called the Black Nights. The gang members had left the apartment around 2:00 am when their crack buying customers had been either passed out or broke. Venkatesh's goal was to get an outsiders view of life in the ghetto, and life in the gang, from the inside.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Gang Leader for a Day = <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
 * Chapter 1**

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS','sans-serif'; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Not aware of the many dangers that he was getting himself into, Sudhir looks at one of the buildings. It is dirty, chilly, and creepy. The elevator is not working, so he walks up the stairs that were covered in urine. During that time he meets a crowd of tough guys who shout, "Who sent you." They decide not to let him get away. Later on a young black man, who was the leader, walks into the corner and tries to get information on Sudhir and why he is in his building. Sudhir tries to tell them about the surveys, but he realizes that he just came upon the Black Kings. When the new day starts, the leader, J.T., lets him go with a warning.

Chapter 1 Venkatesh Sudhir, A first year grad student hoping to impress his professor. When into one of the most notorious housing project looking for people to take a multiple choice survey on urban poverty. this is where Sudhir comes in contact with the street gang, after meeting JT the gang leader and talking with him. He knew he needed more time in the housing project in order to do his research. the gang leader JT gave him his protection. this is why he was able to come and go into the housing project

Chapter 2 Venkatesh started to regularly hang out with J.T. during which J.T. would discuss some of the aspects of his life pertaining to the ruling of his gang. One day, J.T. allowed Venkatesh to ride along while he went to visit another gang leader at the Robert Taylor Homes. After the meeting, J.T. informed Venkatesh that he was moving himself and the gang to the Robert Taylor Homes and taking control of some of the buildings. After J.T. had completed his move he would invite Venkatesh over regularly and let him hang out with himself and the gang and Venkatesh would even go on patrols of the building with J.T. . During his time with J.T., Venkatesh was able to get in close with J.T.’s family and the other tenants asking about their lives and how they manage to survive in poverty. Venkatesh realized though that with all the time he was spending with J.T., he realized that J.T. kept him sheltered from the more illegal side of his life and business. That is until one day when Venkatesh shockingly witnessed J.T. assault an older man for not obeying him and soon realized that there was a side of J.T. Venkatesh knew nothing about.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Chapter two begins to discuss Sudhir’s deeper involvement with the gang as he becomes closer to J.T. Sudhir finds out that J.T. actually had gone to college on an athletic scholarship, and took a job at a midsize corporation after school. After two years though, he left because white people with lesser skill were being promoted up the chain of command much quicker than he was. J.T. was extremely realistic when it came to discussing sociology, which Sudhir found out when they discussed the “culture of poverty” issues. Sudhir was now being caught up in the thrill of being involved in the gang life. He was learning so much about the daily gang operations now, including how it was organized and who they key players were. Since this was happening before cell phones, Sudhir was learning how the gang would communicate with each other through their coded messages. J.T was now moving his operation from the Lake Park projects to the Robert Taylor projects, since Lake Park was due to be demolished. J.T.’s plan was to merge the two gang operations and take over. The gang leaders wanted J.T. back so it was an easy transition. Robert Taylor was considered easy money because of the white people that drove over from the better neighborhoods, according to J.T. Robert Taylor also was considered too dangerous to patrol, so they rarely, if ever went there. J.T. told Sudhir his income would possibly rise from 30k a year to about 75k if business went well. Now, as Sudhir become closer with the gang, he found out how the gang structure mirrored the structure of many other businesses in America. Sudhir met J.T.’s mother, Ms. Mae, who was a strong spoken, yet kind older woman. She stressed the fact that even though they were all poor, they lived in a community, not the projects. J.T. explained who squatters were, and how the gang took a cut from them since they didn’t have a lease. J.T. also paid off one of the tenant patrol officers to keep her happy. He explained that she wanted the kids safe in the hallways, so J.T. tried to keep the squatters under control and gave her money for the kids to keep her happy. J.T. also explained that everyone is “in on it” in the projects, even the landlord and housing authority. Sudhir was now discovering how crack in the projects was similar to the use of alcohol in the suburbs where he grew up. Sudhir met J.T.’s cousin, Clarisse, but it seemed J.T. did not want to acknowledge she was family since she was a prostitute. In the final pages of the chapter, J.T. and his members beat up C-Note since he was running an auto shop where the gang basketball tournament was to go on. C-Note publically defied J.T, and he paid the price. J.T. and some of his members beat him up. J.T. did not see Sudhir until after the beating, and was surprised to see him there. Sudhir had finally seen an “unpolished” version of J.T. It was the first time he had seen him use violence.
 * <span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Chapter Two: **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Chapter 3**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the chapter "Someone to watch over me" Venkatesh meets up with J.T again. Venkatesh witnesses the beatings of squatters in the building who refuse to pay the gang "fees." Venkatesh struggles with the fact that fighting/ beating someone until they are seriously injured is a way of life in that particular neighborhood. J.T worries about other members of the Black Kings taking his position. The Young Black Kings become involved in voting registration. Although, a misunderstanding between the members and the group leader makes it difficult. Also, the Young Black Kings were told they would go back to tell people who they should vote for as voting day became closer, causing trouble with residents. Venkatesh witnesses what members will do in order to get money. He runs into problems with other members of the building, because he had spent so much time with the Black Kings, so he goes down the Boys and Girls club which causes trouble with J.T. Venkatesh is able to witness two rival gang members coming together to discuss problems. At the end of the chapter he is warned to be careful because he can not be protected all the time.

In Chapter 3, Venkatesh hangs out with J.T in the Robert Taylor. Venkatesh is scared of the gang/street life and don’t want to ask the wrong questions but had plenty questions to ask. Venkatesh witnessed a second beating sense hanging around J.T. This beating was over “fees” the guy that was beaten went by the name Brass he refused to pay the fees and is known for hopping from building to building. This beating mad Venkatesh go into some type of shock stage he could not believe what he was seeing. He wanted to help but could not do anything. J.T had to console Venkatesh and let him know these are things he has to face and has to get use to when being in the hood. From there he asked J.T why did he beat up C-note and why do he need politician involved in his life and J.T explained that him and how the money need to be saved and what to look out for. Then there was a gang known as the Black kings that Venkatesh witness getting involved in community service but getting individuals to register to vote. At the end of the Chapter he witness two gangs that was rivals come together and discuss problems.

Chapter 4 Sudhir had been observing J.T and the Robert Taylor Projects for three years now. In getting his dissertation topic ready he spoke with some of his professors, but they were more interested in common sociological issues and the community. He begins to widen his study and as a joke to J.T he had told him that his job was easy, that he couldn't see what was so hard or difficult about it. Here, J.T gives Sudhir an opportunity to be leader for a day. Sudhir meets with J.T, Price, and T-Bone to go over today's business. One of the first things Sudhir had to do as leader was to decide who would help clean the building as Ms. Bailey asked for the help in which Sudhir had to pick Moochie's or Kalia's group. He picked Moochie's group based on the fact that they hadn't done any community service, and from keep Moochie's group from being "too big." Another thing Sudhir had to do as leader was meet with Johnny as he was charging a lot to only the people of the Black Kings for stuff. This was Sudhir's first time in dealing with others members in the community and he was afraid because Johnny uses a gun. Sudhir had to let J.T deal with Johnny as Johnny did not take kind to Sudhir mediating.

Chapter 4 Sudhir finally feels that he has earned the complete trust of J.T and jokingly claims that J.T's job is not hard to do. J.T tells him that he can be Gang leader for a day, with certain limitations of course. Sudhir feels that this would be a great opportunity for him to get a true perspective of the J.T's life as a Gang leader. Despite the fact that his professor Wilson was worried for his safety, Sudhir went ahead and assumed the role as Gang Leader for the day. He follows J.T and his senior officials around as they make decisions and deal with problems within the gang such as settling disputes, handing out punishments, assigning duties, and getting a venue for a gang meeting later in the week. Sudhir sees things being settled in a violent matter and learns about the respect J.T has earned through Fear. At the end of the day he realizes the burden J.T carries with him everyday, and decides that J.T is a successful manager of this underground business and respects what he does on a day to day basis.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">** Chapter 5 **
====<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Sudhir begins to hang out with Ms.Bailey, a building president of the Local Advisory Council because his university advisers recommended he get a woman's perspective on the communal problems. She makes him understand that he has to not only study them he has to study the white people, the people on the outside. Sudhir again gets warned that he couldn't always be protected. He finds Ms.Bailey is so powerful in the community because she cares and helps tenants even if she has to form an alliance with J.T and his gang to get help. She described it as "finding a creative solution to a multitude of problems." He gets to see first hand how important she is; she feeds every hungry child in her building, helps catch and reprimand Bee-bee (who beat up his girlfriend), get food and donations from local stores and makes it possible for the Wilson's to have a new door up within a week (which is pretty fast in the projects).She especially essential because she protects the women. ==== <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
 * Chapter 6 **

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Four years into his research, Venkatesh found that he might get in trouble if kept doing the kind of research that he was doing. He was told that he needed to get legal advice because his research was a bit out of bounds of typical academic research. Venkatesh was told that if he knew of physical harm to someone the he'd be obligated to tell the police. He also found out that there's no legal confidentiality rules with his research, so if he were subpoenaed, he would be legally obligated to testify against the gang. Venkatesh knew he wouldn't be a part of any drive-by shootings, so he needed to rethink his research approach. Venkatesh got the blessing from Ms. Bailey and J.T. to spend more time focusing on the local hustlers. Sudhir also told Ms. Bailey about his legal obligations, and she was shocked that he didn't have the street smarts to know about this. She explains to him that he has two options. He can either squeal or he can go to Cook County Jail. Ms. Bailey also enlightened Sudhir about her knowledge of his notebooks in Ms. Mae apartment, and she also showed Venatesh that he is a hustler himself. Since the gang members know that he wants information, and they know the he'll do anything to get it. J.T. arranges pimps to be interviewees for Sudhir without Sudhir knowledge of it. He found out that the affiliate prostitutes had major advantages over the independent prostitutes. Most that the affiliates made $20 more than the independents, whose pimps also took a 33% percent cut, and also affiliates also were not killed in the line of duty like independents were.


 * Chapter 7**

Venkatesh witnessed a drive by while sitting in front of the projects one hot afternoon. After talking to some people he found that the incident that happened before the drive by served as a way for more people to come out into the street a "set up." He begins to talk to J.T and witness how J.T takes control over the situation after the drive by. J.T. orders all his followed to go to school as a way of keeping his followers out of trouble. However, Venkatesh finds that his classroom is full of (J.T's followers) who are drug dealing, dice playing and people rapping over beats. At this point Venkatesh feels like a babysitter rather then a teacher. During this chapter Venkatesh also meets a officer names Reggie and Jerry. Reggie and Venkatesh are good friends however Jerry and other officers around town feel that Venkatesh is a reporter than a researcher. Jerry has threatened Venkatesh life if he ever finds out hat he is writing bad stuff about him. Venkatesh is confused and remembers seeing Jerry steal money from a man and beat him. It is at this point in the novel that Venkatah realizes that there is two gangs ad the cops are one of them. Venkatesh excuses the cops of being a gang "with power."
 * Chapter 7**

Venkatesh was hanging around Robert Taylor when a drive by shooting occurred. One of Venkatesh friends Price was shot and badly hurt. In order to keep T.J’s other followers from being hurt he asked Venkatesh to teach them in a class room to keep them out of trouble. The class room was not in the best conditions and the kids really did not want to listen to anything he had to say. They would smoke weed, drink, and get prostitutes instead of trying to learn. Venkatesh said it was not even a teaching job anymore; it was now a babysitting job. At one point they talk about being at a Black King party and the cops raiding it taking all of their stuff. They said it happens every time they have a party because they cops want their money. There is a black cop named Officer Jerry who beats up other blacks for their money. Venkatesh friend Autry told him not to write about the cops because they are the ones with the real power. Venkatesh found this out the hard way because he was robbed and all of his things were stolen. He later found out it was by the cops. At the end of the chapter people felt betrayed by Venkatesh and the cops told people not to talk to him anymore.

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Georgia,serif;">Chapter 8 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">

Venkatesh was invited to attend one the the high rank meetings. Most of the members really trusted him and actually approached him to tell stories about their personal life and the history of the gang. Venkatesh was given the unofficial title to be the Director of Communications. Although J.T. was moving up in ranks and making more money, he became more paranoid and began to save money especially for his children in case he went to jail or was killed. T-Bone gave Venkatesh access to the gang's financial records. Later on these records would be what eventually gave Venkatesh critical acclaim. Because of the future demolition of the projects J.T. began to attempt to recruit new members from different parts of the city.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Chapter 8 Continued = = = Because the Robert Taylor Housing was being torn down a lot of people were already forced to relocate. J.T. had to make sure the relocation didn’t impact what the purpose of the gang was. He had to keep it going one way or another. He knew that the gang would start to drift away because the distance they had between them.Eventually J.T. was tired of his new position and running the gang. He stopped his street life for the most part and managed a local dry cleaning business. He helped the higher gang members once in a while with the drug trade and managed them. J.T. didn’t seem to hate his new lifestyle even though the money he was making wasn’t as good as before. He was content with his new life as long as he wasn’t dead or locked up as he states. Both J.T. and Sudhir grew distant from one another. They were no longer friends as they once were. They still had this bond because Venkatesh thought about J.T's sayings and words a lot. More gangs had formed on the Chicago streets. This meant more hands were in the pot when it came to making money. When they destroyed the Robert Taylor housing, they also took away a major portion of the gang’s identity. Gang members weren’t as loyal as they used to be. Sudhir was having a lot of academic success because of his experience.

=
In class we discussed five necessities before conducting your research. All five of the requirements I will be looking at the Stanford Prison Experiment in order to figure out whether they were all fulfilled. 1) __Confidentiality__- I have read a few articles on this and I am assuming that this experiment was a confidential one, because when "prison mates" are talked about they refer to them by their prison numbers and not their names. 2) __informed consent-__ the group of people were recruited undergraduate students, and were given the choice to leave if they did not want to participate, which two of them did right away. I also read that during the experiment a few "guards" left because it was too much for them to handle. 3)__benefits outweigh the costs-__ this is hard to answer, because to some people involved in this experiment, they were forever scarred. They did get paid $15 a day, although I highly disagree that that compensation outweighs what they went through. 4) __Justice-__ Individually, some parents got involved and brought in lawyers not realizing that their sons had the choice to stop whenever they wanted. 5)__Sensitivity/vulnerable populations-__ I believe choosing college students to do behavioral study is just asking for trouble. College students are still learning who they are and getting comfortable in their own skin, so it only makes it easier for the guards to get into groups and feed off of each other. If they study was done with adults, it might be possible that the results of the study would be different; or completely the same, but we will never know.======

__**Milgram Obedience Study**__

These experiments took place in 1961, and all people that were used for the survey were payed $4.00 for one hour of their time. Subjects believed they were shocking an individual on the other side of the wall if they got an answer wrong. When and if subjects said they did not want to go through with it, they were asked to "please continue" and "the experiment must go on". In regards to informed consent, Milgram made sure that all subjects knew what they were doing and that they agreed to it. He made it clear what their role would be in the experiment. Subjects also signed a consent form. In terms of Justice, some people were unsure what to think at first when they found out what the study was truly about. After the experiment, roughly 85% of people involved in the study were glad to have been in it. In fact, some individuals even thanked Milgram later on, explaining how it showed them not to always submit to authority if you feel it is wrong. In this study, the benefits did outweigh the costs. The subjects were paid, and even though it was shocking to have learned what they did, an overwhelming amount of people agreed it was a positive experience for them. The data collected was worth the cost as well. In regards to sensitivity and vulnerable populations, that was not really an issue in this study. The requirements were that you must be between the ages of 20 and 50, eliminating children and the younger population. No special occupation was needed, they seemed to be looking for "blue-collar" workers. I believe this study was confidential, there was no need for names. The subjects were given the title of "teacher" and the one individual getting shocked was the "learner". Overall, this study was a positive one and did not have lasting negative effects of the population used for the study.

Question number 22 stated //which of the following must true about the relationship between reliability and validity in social science research//? The correct answer was **<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';">Reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity. ** The reason this was the best fit answer is because when you are doing social science research the reliability is among the agreement with individuals that are doing the same research which the outcome comes out the same way, but does not mean their outcome is accurate.


 * __Test Answers:__**

-B. The positivist might be most likely to have questions about the methodology of the studies reviewed by The New York Times. The post-modernist might be more likely to have questions about who funded the studies reviewed by The New York Times. The post-modernist does not really have faith in research because they feel that most research has no element of surprise. Meanwhile the positivist believes that social research can be conducted as scientific research. The post-modernist would ask who funded the research because if the research was funded by the coffee makers the research would most likely be in favor of coffee. The positivist would just want to make sure that the experiment was conducted properly.
 * 1.** Recently, an article in the New York Times claimed there was no evidence that coffee had negative effects on health. How might a post-modernist respond to the article? How might a positivist respond to the article?

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">**2.** Which of the following would generally be considered appropriate social scientific research questions? - Why are less educated women more likely to have children before getting married than more educated women? - Why do men tend to make more money than women do in the US? - If local governments hire more police officers, (how much) will crime rates go down? These are questions that cannot just be looked up in a book or on the internet to find the answer. The other two options were questions about ethics and they are not appropriate social science research questions.

4. Which of the following techniques is best if you want to determine whether something causes something else to happen? the answer is B experiments. In in-depth interviews, surveys, ethnographies, and focus groups you really cannot determine whether something causes something else to happen. You have to do experiments to see if something causes something else. Without an experiment you will not be able to determine it because you have to test things out to see if they cause something to happen.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9.5pt;">8. Advisors to politicians conduct many focus groups. What kinds of conclusions can political pollsters draw from focus groups? Choose ALL that apply A) Impressions of potential voters’ feelings of warmth or coldness toward a candidate D) The processes by which potential voters go about deciding which candidate they like E) The impressions of potential voters about what issues matter most to them Focus groups are centrally concerned with understanding attitudes rather than measuring them. They are best used to explain “why” the public feels the way it does. It is interested in the thought process a person goes through when making a decision.

- In advocacy research, there is usually no possibility of surprise. The researcher has a particular point of view and finds evidence to back up that point of view. - In social scientific research, the researcher tries to keep an open mind about conclusions, and tries to maintain the possibility of surprise in his or her research In advocacy it is similar to a lawyer, they gather evidence to support their findings so there is no possibility of surprise. In social scientific research the researcher should try to keep an open mind so the possibility of surprise is there.
 * 9.** Which of the following statements are true about advocacy research and social scientific research?

- <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: 16px;">relatively large number of subjects - <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: 16px;">not much in-depth information from each subject - a highly standardized interview process Quantitative research methods differ from qualitative methods. Quantitative research methods want to look at a larger picture to determine what the larger group things about a certain issue. This research method does not go into details for there is no need to, because it is looking at the general spectrum, not a concentrated problem which is only focused on a particular group. The groups selected don't need to be of a particular race, gender, or religion.
 * 11.**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;"> **Quantitative research methods are usually characterized by**

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9.5pt;"> 12. Say the gang that Sudhir Venkatesh studied was also observed by a second researcher, and this second researcher reported observations that contradicted the observations made by Sudhir. In this (purely hypothetical) case, what kinds of questions would be raised about Sudhir's study? C) Concerns about reliability and validity The reason this is answer C is because r eliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9.5pt;">Reliability – means that if different studies were done, they would get the same results. Validity – means it is true or valid. Since the study reported different cases it means it is not reliable. Since there isn’t reliability, there also isn’t validity. Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity. Ie: Three people could all witness a car accident and say that driver number 1 was at fault. Since all witnesses saw the same thing, this is reliable. However, if driver number 2 was actually at fault, the information is not valid. In this case there is reliability but there is not validity.

- As hard as we might try, we cannot find absolute truths - All of our observations are inevitably affected by our biases Because in the real world no matter how hard we may try, we cannot truly say without any doubt that our observations are 100 percent the absolutely truth without having some type of bias.
 * 16.** According to the post-modernist perspective

- Homogeneous with respect to age, gender, race, and class. The reason why is because when someone is surrounded by things that they are familiar with they tend to speak more freely and open minded because they share a similar background and culture with their environment.
 * 19.** The people in a focus group should be:


 * 24.** Which of the following are qualities of good research questions?

Question 3: Qualitative research method includes 1) Focus groups, 2) Ethnographies, 3) In-depth interviews. Focus groups are a qualitative research method because they look past numbers and measurements as focus groups focus on a specific product, issue, and or topic to discuss to get a deeper understand from a set number of people to see what is behind or in the mind of the group about the specific product, issue, or topic. Ethnographies is a qualitative research method because the observer is using his or her observation of a group or culture and is writing the description of their lives because the data being gathered is through the eyes of the observer and from what he or she is learning from a group. In-depth interviews are qualitative research method because you are asking question the gather more information, depending on what the topic and question are, thee questions help look deeper into what the research is looking for whether it is opinions, beliefs, or a better understanding of a activity.

answer: tell a story of a group from the people of the group's perspective.** -In Gang Leader for a Day, Sudhir wanted to get a first hand look at what happens in a gang. He became part of the gang and lived like they did. This is they way sociologists do "research" for ethnography's. By getting a first hand look, you are able to record what happens and see how people react in that group, in Sudhir's case, how people reacted in the gang to the lifestyle the lived. An ethnography is a great way to get a good look at a group of people and see how they really live and feel.
 * 13**. **The main goal of ethnography is to:

-When holding a focus group, you need an intimate setting in which you can get feedback from people on a personal level. By having at most, 12 people in a room, everyone gets a chance to talk and you can see and read everyone's emotions and feelings in the room without too many distractions. People do not always have a lot of time to participate in focus groups, so if only 8-12 people are in them, everyone gets to say their piece and then the session can end. There is less arguing and more conversation going on with a small group of people.
 * 18.** <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">**Ideally, about how many people should be in a focus group, according to the collective wisdom of experts?**
 * answer: 8-12**.

6. If you're interested in establishing a causal relationship between two variables using observational research, what should you try to do? Choose the best answer. The answer is comparisons between similar groups that differ on the independent variable because you are trying to find out what it is that causes something to happen so by changing the independent variable you can see if the dependent variable is effected.
 * participant observation in a neighborhood
 * focus groups of relevant persons
 * comparisons between similar groups that differ on the independent variable
 * comparison between similar groups that differ on the dependent variable
 * none of the above

- All of the above The answer is all of the above because all of these qualities are required to have a quality research question. You need a question that will require a lot of research and the answer can’t be found easily. Also, it must have social significance and be interesting to the audience your research is for.
 * 24.** Which of the following are qualities of good research questions?

This is the independent variable because whether or not you have been incarcerated CAUSES racial identity. The definition of an independent variable is that it causes something else.
 * Abstract #1** independent variable- having been incarcerated vs. not having been incarcerated.

Abstract #1 Independent variable: Having been incarcerated vs. Not having been incarcerated Here what is used the explain the dependent variable is the perceptions of both the criminal Justice system and the crime one had done can play a role in America in terms of race.

12. Say the gang that Sudhir Venkatesh studied was also observed by a second researcher, and this second researcher reported observations that contradicted the observations made by Sudhir. In this (purely hypothetical) case, what kinds of questions would be raised about Sudhir's study?

The correct answer would be C) concerns about reliability and validity. This would be the correct answer because in order for a study to be considered reliable there has to be a 100% overlap in the research. For reliability everything is consistent, if the second researcher reported research not consistent with Sudhir's it is not reliable. Also questions about validity would be raised because it measures how accurate or correct the data is. The data would not be valid or correct if they second researcher found conflicting information.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 9.5pt;">23. Consider the connection between education and income. People with more education tend to make more money. Can we conclude based on this observation that education causes income to increase? No, there may other variables causing both education and income. This is true because there are several other factors that can contribute to a person’s salary increase. For example, someone’s work ethic could help them earn more money in their career. People have different educational background and different things that may impact their education. I know people who did not go to college who make about 100,000 dollars a year. This individual is a chief of police. While others who went to college make about 60,000 dollars a year as an accountant. It is a fact that people who went to college make more money than people who didn't go to college. From this we cannot conclude that it is their college education that causes them to make more money.

**<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 16pt;">Institutional Review Board ** <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The main purpose of an IRB is to foster ethical treatment of human research participants. Before IRBs most researchers conducted their studies in such ways that were harmful or had a negative impact on the participants. Because they did find out new things the fact that participants were harmed was overlooked. IRBs have since been instituted to make sure there is a consistent balance that exists between harm to the participants and the potential gain of the study.